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The Instructional Design Brief
November 6, 2026
Browse all editions71 briefs
“I Think I Know It” Needs a Check
A learner can feel ready for an exam and still be unprepared. Here are three ways to compare confidence with performance, so your next practice activity helps learners decide what to study next.Read the brief
A learner can feel ready for an exam and still be unprepared. Here are three ways to compare confidence with performance, so your next practice activity helps learners decide what to study next.
In instructional design and development, collecting confidence ratings is only a starting point. The useful question is what learners and instructors do when confidence and demonstrated understanding disagree.
Compare expectations with evidence.
A September 2026 computer-science study found that students shifted from overestimating to underestimating their grades across two assessments, without improving their overall judgment accuracy (Vekov & Csernoch, 2026). My suggested application: ask learners to estimate their score before feedback, compare it with the result, and identify one topic their estimate missed.
Give the rating a follow-up task.
In a 2025 study, repeated confidence ratings and automated feedback did not improve calibration among 117 adults answering mathematics questions (Rainsford & Foster, 2025). I would add a short explanation: “What in your answer supports your confidence?” After feedback, have learners correct the reasoning, not just change the rating. This follow-up is my design suggestion, not an intervention tested in that study.
Look for underconfidence, too.
Earlier biology research found persistent overconfidence among many lower-performing students, while practice testing was associated with underconfidence among high performers (Osterhage, 2021). I would use the mismatch to guide support: revisit an incorrect answer given confidently, or ask learners to explain why a correct answer they doubted works.
What the evidence can tell us
These studies do not establish that the suggested prompts improve achievement. The computer-science assessments differed in several ways, the mathematics sample was self-selected, and biology practice-test participation was voluntary.
Sources to explore
- Osterhage, J. L. (2021). Persistent miscalibration for low and high achievers despite practice test feedback in an introductory biology course. Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education, 22(2), e00139-21.https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.00139-21
- Rainsford, E., & Foster, C. (2025). Confidence assessment, calibration, and gender. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 23, 4073–4098.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-025-10615-1
- Vekov, G., & Csernoch, M. (2026). From concurrent self-assessment to postdiction: Grade-judgment calibration across two assessments in a first-year computer science course. Education Sciences, 16(9), Article 1476.https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci16091476
Teach Learners How to Ask for Help
“Ask for help” leaves learners guessing what to ask and how much help they need. Here are three ways to build useful help-seeking into a course without taking the work out of learners’ hands.Read the brief
“Ask for help” leaves learners guessing what to ask and how much help they need. Here are three ways to build useful help-seeking into a course without taking the work out of learners’ hands.
For instructional designers, the question is not just where to place a support link. It is how to help learners identify a difficulty, request useful guidance, and return to the task.
Model a question that moves learning forward.
A foundational meta-analysis of 108 studies linked help-seeking aimed at understanding with higher achievement, while seeking answers to finish the work was negatively associated with achievement (Fong et al., 2023). My suggested application: provide a question starter beside a challenging activity: “I tried ___. I understand ___. Could you explain why ___?”
Make the route to support specific.
An August 2026 review of 32 studies found that preservice teachers often preferred informal help sources and highlighted the importance of accessible formal guidance (Navarro-Ibáñez et al., 2026). I would replace “contact your instructor” with where to ask, what to include, and when to expect a response. Keep an alternative available for private questions.
Offer support without automatically taking over.
Three experiments with children found that receiving answers or hints could reduce perceived competence and task enjoyment (Sierksma & Brummelman, 2025). My suggested application: ask, “Would you like a hint, an explanation, or more time?” Then let the learner attempt the next step. This is a design suggestion, not an intervention tested by that study.
What the evidence can tell us
The reviews largely report associations, not proof of cause. The experiments involved Dutch children ages 7–9, so their findings should not be assumed to apply equally to adult learners.
Sources to explore
- Fong, C. J., Gonzales, C., Hill-Troglin Cox, C., & Shinn, H. B. (2023). Academic help-seeking and achievement of postsecondary students: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 115(1), 1–21.https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000725
- Navarro-Ibáñez, M., Balladares, J., Sprovera, I., Manaut, C., & Infante, M. (2026). Help! I need somebody: A systematic review of academic help-seeking among pre-service teachers. Educational Psychology Review, 38, Article 115.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-026-10208-6
- Sierksma, J., & Brummelman, E. (2025). “Here, let me do it for you”: Psychological consequences of receiving direct and indirect help in childhood. Child Development, 96(5), 1660–1674.https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.14259
Teach the Transition, Not Just the Rule
Students may know it’s time to clean up and still not know what to do first. Here are three ways to teach the transition itself, so students can move from one activity to the next without waiting for you to repeat every direction.Read the brief
Students may know it’s time to clean up and still not know what to do first. Here are three ways to teach the transition itself, so students can move from one activity to the next without waiting for you to repeat every direction.
“Clean up and get ready” is a direction, not a demonstration. In instructional design and development, a classroom routine can be treated as a skill: define what students should do, show them how, and see whether they can do it in another setting.
Make the steps visible.
The What Works Clearinghouse recommends establishing, modeling, and teaching clear behavior expectations in K–5 classrooms (Lane et al., 2024). Try replacing “get ready” with three observable steps: return the materials, check your workspace, and bring your notebook to the group. Rehearse them when no one is rushed.
Check whether the routine transfers.
In a preschool study, children who watched narrated video models learned cleanup behaviors and used them at centers where they hadn’t practiced the routine (Duncan et al., 2026). Try modeling cleanup at one station, then see which steps students can do independently at another.
Notice what students get right.
In a prekindergarten summer program, groups receiving positive monitoring or engagement had fewer transition rule violations than groups monitored silently (Obee et al., 2024). Try naming the action you want repeated: “You put the markers back and checked the table. Now it’s ready for the next group.”
What the evidence can tell us
The two studies involved young children in specific settings. Use them as a starting point, then track which steps your own learners still need help with.
Sources to explore
- Duncan, A. L., Shepley, C., & Helton, H. (2026). Using video models to support generalized center transitions in inclusive preschool classrooms. Journal of Early Intervention, 48(2), 115–128.https://doi.org/10.1177/10538151251353525
- Lane, K. L., Baldy, T., Becker, T., Bradshaw, C., Dolan, V., Dymnicki, A., Freeman, B., Holian, L., Lemire, S., McIntosh, K., Moulton, S., Nese, R., Payno-Simmons, R., Porowski, A., & Sutherland, K. (2024). Teacher-delivered behavioral interventions in grades K–5: A practice guide for educators (WWC 2025001). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/PracticeGuide/31
- Obee, A. F., Hart, K. C., Maharaj, A. V., & Graziano, P. A. (2024). Taking charge of early childhood transitions: Preventing challenging behaviors through engaging routines. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 32(4), 254–262.https://doi.org/10.1177/10634266241271357
Where Does an AI Tutor Fit in the Course?
An AI tutor can answer a student’s question while drawing them away from the course activities designed to help them learn. Before adding one, how do we decide what it should help students do, and what it must not replace?Read the brief
An AI tutor can answer a student’s question while drawing them away from the course activities designed to help them learn. Before adding one, how do we decide what it should help students do, and what it must not replace?
The question is not simply whether AI tutoring works. It is whether the tutor supports the learning path you designed. Recent studies point in different directions, which makes the design choices worth a closer look.
Give the tutor a teaching task.
In a 2025 randomized study in an undergraduate physics course, students learned more from a carefully structured AI tutor than from the comparison class activity (Kestin et al., 2025). My suggested application: have the tutor guide learners through a problem one step at a time, offer feedback, and leave the final answer for the learner to explain.
Help learners think, not hand off the work.
In a 2026 experiment, students with AI access scored higher on knowledge tests. Delayed writing gains were stronger among those who used AI for explanations than among those who had it generate text (Contractor & Reyes, 2026). I would prompt learners to ask for a hint or explanation, then complete an unaided response.
Watch what the tutor displaces.
An October 2026 randomized university trial found lower grades and lower learning-management-system participation in course sections given access to an AI tutor (Liu et al., 2026). I would check both learning results and participation in the activities the tutor is meant to support.
What the evidence can tell us
These studies used different tutors, assignments, and measures. They do not establish that AI tutoring is always helpful or harmful. Contractor and Reyes and Liu et al. are working papers, rather than peer-reviewed journal articles. They give us a practical test: does the tool help learners do the thinking and stay engaged with the course?
Sources to explore
- Contractor, Z., & Reyes, G. (2026). Experimental evidence on the learning impact of generative AI (IZA Discussion Paper No. 18792). IZA Institute of Labor Economics.https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/18792/experimental-evidence-on-the-learning-impact-of-generative-ai
- Kestin, G., Miller, K., Klales, A., Milbourne, T., & Ponti, G. (2025). AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: An RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting. Scientific Reports, 15, Article 17458.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-97652-6
- Liu, J., Sweet, T., Chen, M. H., Engelberg, J., Masters, M. C., Clark, M., Persaud, A., Lancaster, A., Hollingsworth, J. K., & Rice, J. K. (2026). The effects of course-integrated AI tutoring on student performance and engagement: A randomized university trial (EdWorkingPaper No. 26-1598). Annenberg Institute at Brown University.https://edworkingpapers.com/ai26-1598
Give the Next Action a Trigger
“I’ll work on it this week” names an intention. It does not identify the moment to begin.Read the brief
“I’ll work on it this week” names an intention. It does not identify the moment to begin.
Implementation intentions connect a recognizable situation with a specific response: “If this happens, then I will do that.” For instructional design and development, this offers a practical way to support follow-through without assuming that writing a plan guarantees action.
Connect a cue to an observable action.
A meta-analysis of 642 tests found benefits across several outcomes, with larger effects when plans used an if-then format and were rehearsed (Sheeran et al., 2025). Sonja’s suggested application: close a module with one concrete plan. For example, “If I finish Tuesday’s class, then I will open the assignment and draft its first paragraph.”
Plan for the obstacle, not just the goal.
A randomized study of 81 undergraduates found that mental contrasting combined with implementation intentions reduced task aversiveness and improved willingness to act compared with positive thinking (Zhou et al., 2026). Sonja’s suggested application: ask learners to identify one likely barrier and choose a manageable response before leaving the lesson.
Check follow-through rather than collecting promises.
Research published September 19, 2026, followed 87 university students across four weeks. Implementation intentions did not increase distributed practice (David et al., 2026). Sonja’s suggested application: revisit the plan at the next checkpoint. Ask what happened, whether the cue occurred, and what needs adjusting.
What the evidence can tell us
The student studies were small and context-specific. Willingness and reported study behavior are not proof of improved achievement. The combined intervention also cannot establish the effect of if-then planning alone.
Sources to explore
- David, L., Biwer, F., Crutzen, R., & de Bruin, A. (2026). Understanding and supporting university students’ use of distributed practice via implementation intentions. npj Science of Learning. Advance online publication.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-026-00448-0
- Sheeran, P., Listrom, O., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2025). The when and how of planning: Meta-analysis of the scope and components of implementation intentions in 642 tests. European Review of Social Psychology, 36(1), 162–194.https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2024.2334563
- Zhou, X., Wider, W., Wu, H., Xu, Y., Qin, M., & Borromeo, A. S. (2026). Beyond positive thinking: A randomized trial of mental contrasting with implementation intentions to curb academic procrastination. Acta Psychologica, 262, Article 106168.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.106168
A concept map needs more than connected boxes
Meaningful connections can reveal what learners understand.Read the brief
Meaningful connections can reveal what learners understand.
A 2026 undergraduate chemistry study found different retention and transfer results by map format and learner choice (Sunday et al., 2026). The task performed with the map matters as much as offering one.
Start with a focus question.
Novak and Cañas (2008) describe concepts, linking phrases, and meaningful statements. Suggested application: require labeled relationships that answer a specific question.
Prioritize the task.
Wang et al. (2025) found comparable digital and paper subgroup effects. Suggested application: choose an accessible tool and assess relationship accuracy rather than visual polish.
Test learning beyond the map.
Suggested application: present a new case and ask learners to use relationships from their map to explain or predict an outcome.
What the evidence can tell us
The synthesis concerns STEM achievement across varied interventions. Subgroup comparisons do not establish that tools caused outcomes, and one chemistry experiment cannot identify the best format everywhere.
Sources to explore
- Novak, J. D., & Cañas, A. J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them (Technical Report IHMC CmapTools 2006-01 Rev 01-2008). Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition.https://cmap.ihmc.us/docs/theory-of-concept-maps.php
- Sunday, O. J., Jin, G., & Ajeigbe, O. J. (2026). The effects of learner choice and concept map format on student learning outcomes in undergraduate STEM education. Journal for STEM Education Research, 9, 740–766.https://doi.org/10.1007/s41979-026-00191-6
- Wang, X.-M., Wang, J.-L., Xu, S.-Y., & Xu, S.-J. (2025). Concept mapping in STEM education: A meta-analysis of its impact on students’ achievement (2004–2023). International Journal of STEM Education, 12, Article 30.https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-025-00554-2
The debrief is part of the practice
Reviewing an experience deliberately creates another chance to learn.Read the brief
Reviewing an experience deliberately creates another chance to learn.
A 2026 qualitative review describes the effects of hierarchy, blame, and uncertainty on emergency responders’ reflection (Nedergaard et al., 2026). Debrief design needs both purpose and conditions for honest participation.
Review evidence.
Foundational synthesis links effectiveness with performance alignment and objective evidence (Keiser & Arthur, 2021). Suggested application: bring a work sample, observation, or decision sequence.
Make candor possible.
Suggested application: explain the purpose and use of notes, invite different interpretations, and focus on decisions and conditions rather than blame.
Carry one change forward.
AHRQ guidance includes formally changing the plan. Suggested application: close with one behavior to retain, one change to test, and a specific next attempt.
What the evidence can tell us
The qualitative review concerns real emergency operations rather than classrooms. Healthcare guidance and mixed debrief findings require evaluation when adapted elsewhere.
Sources to explore
- Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. (2023, December). Reviewing the team’s performance: Debrief. TeamSTEPPS.https://www.ahrq.gov/teamstepps-program/curriculum/team/tools/debrief.html
- Keiser, N. L., & Arthur, W., Jr. (2021). A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of the after-action review (or debrief) and factors that influence its effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 106(7), 1007–1032.https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000821
- Nedergaard, M., Petersen, E. B., & Andersen, C. R. (2026). Practitioner perspectives on learning from emergency response operations: Consequences for a strengthened use of debriefings – A qualitative systematic review. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 34(3), Article e70218.https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5973.70218
The first learning barrier might be the login
An accessible lesson cannot help someone who cannot reach it.Read the brief
An accessible lesson cannot help someone who cannot reach it.
WCAG 2.2 addresses authentication tasks requiring memory, problem solving, or transcription (W3C, n.d.). Instructional access testing should begin before the course homepage.
Let assistance work.
Suggested application: test password-manager support and pasting in required learning platforms. Report barriers to the technical team instead of asking learners to memorize more credentials.
Test every step.
Government Digital Service (2025) includes verification-code entry. Suggested application: check single sign-on, codes, and any extra tool login as one route.
Work with security and accessibility staff.
NIST guidance addresses password managers, autofill, and pasting (Temoshok et al., 2025). Suggested application: document supported options and clear help pathways.
What the evidence can tell us
These are standards and technical resources, not learning experiments. NIST has a defined government-system scope, and these checks alone do not establish full accessibility or security compliance.
Sources to explore
- Government Digital Service. (2025, December). 3.3.8 Accessible authentication (minimum) (AA). A Guide to WCAG.https://alphagov.github.io/guide-to-wcag/sc/3.3.8.html
- Temoshok, D., Fenton, J., Choong, Y.-Y., Lefkovitz, N., Regenscheid, A., Galluzzo, R., & Richer, J. (2025). Digital identity guidelines: Authentication and authenticator management (NIST Special Publication 800-63B-4). National Institute of Standards and Technology.https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b-4
- World Wide Web Consortium. (n.d.). Understanding Success Criterion 3.3.8: Accessible authentication (minimum). Web Accessibility Initiative.https://www.w3.org/WAI/WCAG22/Understanding/accessible-authentication-minimum
A break can be part of the learning design
An agenda needs to account for the people working through its content.Read the brief
An agenda needs to account for the people working through its content.
A 2026 university review found encouraging attention and emotional outcomes but mixed academic-performance evidence (Deng et al., 2026). Breaks deserve planning without promises about grades.
Plan the transition.
CDC distinguishes activity within instruction and breaks between periods. Suggested application: identify a task change and provide a clear pause and return point.
Offer choices.
Ubago-Jiménez et al. (2026) report improved attention measures without a control group. Suggested application: make movement optional, with seated and quiet alternatives.
Evaluate the intended outcome.
Suggested application: distinguish comfort and readiness from learning. Include later performance evidence if retention is the goal.
What the evidence can tell us
Interventions and measures varied. One uncontrolled study cannot isolate causation. CDC’s school resource requires adaptation to adult workshops.
Sources to explore
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2026, October 9). Classroom physical activity.https://www.cdc.gov/physical-activity-education/physical-activity-plan/classroom-physical-activity.html
- Deng, Q., Wu, C., & Yang, L. (2026). Effect of classroom physical activity breaks on learning behaviors and academic achievements in university students: A systematic review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 23, Article 81.https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-026-01936-7
- Ubago-Jiménez, J. L., González-Valero, G., Zurita-Ortega, F., Melguizo-Ibáñez, E., & Alonso-Vargas, J. M. (2026). Active breaks as a physical education strategy to develop attention, concentration and attentional variability in higher education. BMC Psychology, 14, Article 1291.https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05030-2
Sustainability learning needs more than an awareness quiz
Knowing a definition and reasoning through a sustainability decision are different capabilities.Read the brief
Knowing a definition and reasoning through a sustainability decision are different capabilities.
UNESCO’s 2026 assessment guidance addresses systems thinking, ethical decisions, and collaboration (Fischer et al., 2026). Assessment should capture the capability the curriculum promises.
Name the capability.
Suggested application: distinguish terminology from comparing options, explaining consequences, and negotiating a response. Select evidence for each outcome.
Examine model assumptions.
Climate Interactive documents baseline assumptions (Chikofsky, 2023). Suggested application: ask learners to change an assumption and explain how the result affects their conclusion.
Separate enthusiasm and competence.
Chaudhry et al. (2026) report survey improvements after role-play. Suggested application: assess a decision brief with evidence, trade-offs, and a recommendation separately from confidence.
What the evidence can tell us
Guidance is not an effectiveness trial. Pre/post surveys alone do not establish durable competence; older model documentation should be checked against the current tool.
Sources to explore
- Chaudhry, A., Ghimire, S., & Rodriguez-Tejedo, I. (2026). Experiential learning for climate education: A study of the En-ROADS climate action simulation. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education. Advance online publication.https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSHE-07-2025-0737
- Chikofsky, J. (2023, August 14). What are some of the key assumptions underlying the En-ROADS Baseline scenario? Climate Interactive.https://support.climateinteractive.org/support/solutions/articles/47001158762-what-are-some-of-the-key-assumptions-underlying-the-en-roads-baseline-scenario-
- Fischer, D., King, J., & Redman, A. (2026). Assessing learning in education for sustainable development. UNESCO.https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/assessing-learning-education-sustainable-development
Choose the video for the language learner
An engaging clip may still be the wrong resource for a language goal.Read the brief
An engaging clip may still be the wrong resource for a language goal.
A 2026 synthesis associated educational audiovisual input with larger language-learning gains than entertainment input (Sutton & Webb, 2026). Selection should start with the learner’s needs and intended performance.
Match a language goal.
Suggested application: identify target vocabulary, expressions, or listening decisions before choosing the clip. Assess their use in a relevant exchange.
Check prior knowledge.
Peters and Webb (2018) identified influences on incidental vocabulary learning. Suggested application: preview essential terms and support language that could block the task.
Design a response.
Broader video research supports active learning (Zhang et al., 2025). Suggested application: reconstruct a dialogue or use an expression in a new situation without adding distracting interactions.
What the evidence can tell us
Within-group gains do not isolate an advantage over alternative instruction. The 2018 study involved Dutch-speaking English learners; broader video evidence is mainly adult and STEM research.
Sources to explore
- Peters, E., & Webb, S. (2018). Incidental vocabulary acquisition through viewing L2 television and factors that affect learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40(3), 551–577.https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263117000407
- Sutton, D., & Webb, S. (2026). The effects of audiovisual input on second language learning: A meta-analysis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 48(2), 571–595.https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263126101612
- Zhang, Y., Li, R., Pi, Z., & Yang, J. (2025). Active learning strategies in video learning: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 48, Article 100708.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2025.100708
An alert is not an intervention
A dashboard identifies a pattern. Someone still needs to design what happens next.Read the brief
A dashboard identifies a pattern. Someone still needs to design what happens next.
Studies distinguish changes in initial engagement from improvements in learning (Russell et al., 2026). Proactive advising research also shows why the response attached to an alert matters (Rust & Motz, 2026).
Connect signals to support.
Suggested application: assign a responder, useful next step, and follow-up point. An alert should open a support pathway rather than simply populate a report.
Measure behavior and learning separately.
Personalized messages did not improve all measured outcomes (Russell et al., 2026). Suggested application: track starting, continuing, and demonstrating capability separately.
Keep people responsible for interpretation.
Jisc (2026) recommends oversight and opportunities to correct data. Suggested application: ask about context before treating low activity as low motivation.
What the evidence can tell us
The studies test different interventions and populations. Rust and Motz used one institution’s 2020 data; Jisc provides governance guidance rather than experimental learning evidence.
Sources to explore
- Jisc. (2026, October 23). The ethical application of AI in learning analytics.https://www.jisc.ac.uk/news/all/the-ethical-application-of-ai-in-learning-analytics
- Russell, J.-E., Smith, A.-M., George, S., & Brummett, A. (2026). Impact of learning analytics-based personalized feedback: An experimental study on student behavior in a large introductory STEM course. Educational Technology Research and Development. Advance online publication.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-026-10728-6
- Rust, M. M., & Motz, B. A. (2026). Incorporating an LMS learning analytic into proactive advising: Validity and use in a randomized experiment. The Internet and Higher Education, 68, Article 101057.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2025.101057
MEET YOUR CURATOR
Learning with purpose.
I’m Sonja L. Howell, Ph.D.—an instructional designer, author, and educator. I curate research and resources into brief reads that connect evidence with everyday learning design decisions.
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