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The Instructional Design Brief
November 3, 2026
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Where Does an AI Tutor Fit in the Course?
An AI tutor can answer a student’s question while drawing them away from the course activities designed to help them learn. Before adding one, how do we decide what it should help students do, and what it must not replace?Read the brief
An AI tutor can answer a student’s question while drawing them away from the course activities designed to help them learn. Before adding one, how do we decide what it should help students do, and what it must not replace?
The question is not simply whether AI tutoring works. It is whether the tutor supports the learning path you designed. Recent studies point in different directions, which makes the design choices worth a closer look.
Give the tutor a teaching task.
In a 2025 randomized study in an undergraduate physics course, students learned more from a carefully structured AI tutor than from the comparison class activity (Kestin et al., 2025). My suggested application: have the tutor guide learners through a problem one step at a time, offer feedback, and leave the final answer for the learner to explain.
Help learners think, not hand off the work.
In a 2026 experiment, students with AI access scored higher on knowledge tests. Delayed writing gains were stronger among those who used AI for explanations than among those who had it generate text (Contractor & Reyes, 2026). I would prompt learners to ask for a hint or explanation, then complete an unaided response.
Watch what the tutor displaces.
An October 2026 randomized university trial found lower grades and lower learning-management-system participation in course sections given access to an AI tutor (Liu et al., 2026). I would check both learning results and participation in the activities the tutor is meant to support.
What the evidence can tell us
These studies used different tutors, assignments, and measures. They do not establish that AI tutoring is always helpful or harmful. Contractor and Reyes and Liu et al. are working papers, rather than peer-reviewed journal articles. They give us a practical test: does the tool help learners do the thinking and stay engaged with the course?
Sources to explore
- Contractor, Z., & Reyes, G. (2026). Experimental evidence on the learning impact of generative AI (IZA Discussion Paper No. 18792). IZA Institute of Labor Economics.https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/18792/experimental-evidence-on-the-learning-impact-of-generative-ai
- Kestin, G., Miller, K., Klales, A., Milbourne, T., & Ponti, G. (2025). AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: An RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting. Scientific Reports, 15, Article 17458.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-97652-6
- Liu, J., Sweet, T., Chen, M. H., Engelberg, J., Masters, M. C., Clark, M., Persaud, A., Lancaster, A., Hollingsworth, J. K., & Rice, J. K. (2026). The effects of course-integrated AI tutoring on student performance and engagement: A randomized university trial (EdWorkingPaper No. 26-1598). Annenberg Institute at Brown University.https://edworkingpapers.com/ai26-1598
Give the Next Action a Trigger
“I’ll work on it this week” names an intention. It does not identify the moment to begin.Read the brief
“I’ll work on it this week” names an intention. It does not identify the moment to begin.
Implementation intentions connect a recognizable situation with a specific response: “If this happens, then I will do that.” For instructional design and development, this offers a practical way to support follow-through without assuming that writing a plan guarantees action.
Connect a cue to an observable action.
A meta-analysis of 642 tests found benefits across several outcomes, with larger effects when plans used an if-then format and were rehearsed (Sheeran et al., 2025). Sonja’s suggested application: close a module with one concrete plan. For example, “If I finish Tuesday’s class, then I will open the assignment and draft its first paragraph.”
Plan for the obstacle, not just the goal.
A randomized study of 81 undergraduates found that mental contrasting combined with implementation intentions reduced task aversiveness and improved willingness to act compared with positive thinking (Zhou et al., 2026). Sonja’s suggested application: ask learners to identify one likely barrier and choose a manageable response before leaving the lesson.
Check follow-through rather than collecting promises.
Research published September 19, 2026, followed 87 university students across four weeks. Implementation intentions did not increase distributed practice (David et al., 2026). Sonja’s suggested application: revisit the plan at the next checkpoint. Ask what happened, whether the cue occurred, and what needs adjusting.
What the evidence can tell us
The student studies were small and context-specific. Willingness and reported study behavior are not proof of improved achievement. The combined intervention also cannot establish the effect of if-then planning alone.
Sources to explore
- David, L., Biwer, F., Crutzen, R., & de Bruin, A. (2026). Understanding and supporting university students’ use of distributed practice via implementation intentions. npj Science of Learning. Advance online publication.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41539-026-00448-0
- Sheeran, P., Listrom, O., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2025). The when and how of planning: Meta-analysis of the scope and components of implementation intentions in 642 tests. European Review of Social Psychology, 36(1), 162–194.https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2024.2334563
- Zhou, X., Wider, W., Wu, H., Xu, Y., Qin, M., & Borromeo, A. S. (2026). Beyond positive thinking: A randomized trial of mental contrasting with implementation intentions to curb academic procrastination. Acta Psychologica, 262, Article 106168.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.106168
A concept map needs more than connected boxes
Meaningful connections can reveal what learners understand.Read the brief
Meaningful connections can reveal what learners understand.
A 2026 undergraduate chemistry study found different retention and transfer results by map format and learner choice (Sunday et al., 2026). The task performed with the map matters as much as offering one.
Start with a focus question.
Novak and Cañas (2008) describe concepts, linking phrases, and meaningful statements. Suggested application: require labeled relationships that answer a specific question.
Prioritize the task.
Wang et al. (2025) found comparable digital and paper subgroup effects. Suggested application: choose an accessible tool and assess relationship accuracy rather than visual polish.
Test learning beyond the map.
Suggested application: present a new case and ask learners to use relationships from their map to explain or predict an outcome.
What the evidence can tell us
The synthesis concerns STEM achievement across varied interventions. Subgroup comparisons do not establish that tools caused outcomes, and one chemistry experiment cannot identify the best format everywhere.
Sources to explore
- Novak, J. D., & Cañas, A. J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them (Technical Report IHMC CmapTools 2006-01 Rev 01-2008). Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition.https://cmap.ihmc.us/docs/theory-of-concept-maps.php
- Sunday, O. J., Jin, G., & Ajeigbe, O. J. (2026). The effects of learner choice and concept map format on student learning outcomes in undergraduate STEM education. Journal for STEM Education Research, 9, 740–766.https://doi.org/10.1007/s41979-026-00191-6
- Wang, X.-M., Wang, J.-L., Xu, S.-Y., & Xu, S.-J. (2025). Concept mapping in STEM education: A meta-analysis of its impact on students’ achievement (2004–2023). International Journal of STEM Education, 12, Article 30.https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-025-00554-2
The debrief is part of the practice
Reviewing an experience deliberately creates another chance to learn.Read the brief
Reviewing an experience deliberately creates another chance to learn.
A 2026 qualitative review describes the effects of hierarchy, blame, and uncertainty on emergency responders’ reflection (Nedergaard et al., 2026). Debrief design needs both purpose and conditions for honest participation.
Review evidence.
Foundational synthesis links effectiveness with performance alignment and objective evidence (Keiser & Arthur, 2021). Suggested application: bring a work sample, observation, or decision sequence.
Make candor possible.
Suggested application: explain the purpose and use of notes, invite different interpretations, and focus on decisions and conditions rather than blame.
Carry one change forward.
AHRQ guidance includes formally changing the plan. Suggested application: close with one behavior to retain, one change to test, and a specific next attempt.
What the evidence can tell us
The qualitative review concerns real emergency operations rather than classrooms. Healthcare guidance and mixed debrief findings require evaluation when adapted elsewhere.
Sources to explore
- Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. (2023, December). Reviewing the team’s performance: Debrief. TeamSTEPPS.https://www.ahrq.gov/teamstepps-program/curriculum/team/tools/debrief.html
- Keiser, N. L., & Arthur, W., Jr. (2021). A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of the after-action review (or debrief) and factors that influence its effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 106(7), 1007–1032.https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000821
- Nedergaard, M., Petersen, E. B., & Andersen, C. R. (2026). Practitioner perspectives on learning from emergency response operations: Consequences for a strengthened use of debriefings – A qualitative systematic review. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 34(3), Article e70218.https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5973.70218
The first learning barrier might be the login
An accessible lesson cannot help someone who cannot reach it.Read the brief
An accessible lesson cannot help someone who cannot reach it.
WCAG 2.2 addresses authentication tasks requiring memory, problem solving, or transcription (W3C, n.d.). Instructional access testing should begin before the course homepage.
Let assistance work.
Suggested application: test password-manager support and pasting in required learning platforms. Report barriers to the technical team instead of asking learners to memorize more credentials.
Test every step.
Government Digital Service (2025) includes verification-code entry. Suggested application: check single sign-on, codes, and any extra tool login as one route.
Work with security and accessibility staff.
NIST guidance addresses password managers, autofill, and pasting (Temoshok et al., 2025). Suggested application: document supported options and clear help pathways.
What the evidence can tell us
These are standards and technical resources, not learning experiments. NIST has a defined government-system scope, and these checks alone do not establish full accessibility or security compliance.
Sources to explore
- Government Digital Service. (2025, December). 3.3.8 Accessible authentication (minimum) (AA). A Guide to WCAG.https://alphagov.github.io/guide-to-wcag/sc/3.3.8.html
- Temoshok, D., Fenton, J., Choong, Y.-Y., Lefkovitz, N., Regenscheid, A., Galluzzo, R., & Richer, J. (2025). Digital identity guidelines: Authentication and authenticator management (NIST Special Publication 800-63B-4). National Institute of Standards and Technology.https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-63b-4
- World Wide Web Consortium. (n.d.). Understanding Success Criterion 3.3.8: Accessible authentication (minimum). Web Accessibility Initiative.https://www.w3.org/WAI/WCAG22/Understanding/accessible-authentication-minimum
A break can be part of the learning design
An agenda needs to account for the people working through its content.Read the brief
An agenda needs to account for the people working through its content.
A 2026 university review found encouraging attention and emotional outcomes but mixed academic-performance evidence (Deng et al., 2026). Breaks deserve planning without promises about grades.
Plan the transition.
CDC distinguishes activity within instruction and breaks between periods. Suggested application: identify a task change and provide a clear pause and return point.
Offer choices.
Ubago-Jiménez et al. (2026) report improved attention measures without a control group. Suggested application: make movement optional, with seated and quiet alternatives.
Evaluate the intended outcome.
Suggested application: distinguish comfort and readiness from learning. Include later performance evidence if retention is the goal.
What the evidence can tell us
Interventions and measures varied. One uncontrolled study cannot isolate causation. CDC’s school resource requires adaptation to adult workshops.
Sources to explore
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2026, October 9). Classroom physical activity.https://www.cdc.gov/physical-activity-education/physical-activity-plan/classroom-physical-activity.html
- Deng, Q., Wu, C., & Yang, L. (2026). Effect of classroom physical activity breaks on learning behaviors and academic achievements in university students: A systematic review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 23, Article 81.https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-026-01936-7
- Ubago-Jiménez, J. L., González-Valero, G., Zurita-Ortega, F., Melguizo-Ibáñez, E., & Alonso-Vargas, J. M. (2026). Active breaks as a physical education strategy to develop attention, concentration and attentional variability in higher education. BMC Psychology, 14, Article 1291.https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-026-05030-2
Sustainability learning needs more than an awareness quiz
Knowing a definition and reasoning through a sustainability decision are different capabilities.Read the brief
Knowing a definition and reasoning through a sustainability decision are different capabilities.
UNESCO’s 2026 assessment guidance addresses systems thinking, ethical decisions, and collaboration (Fischer et al., 2026). Assessment should capture the capability the curriculum promises.
Name the capability.
Suggested application: distinguish terminology from comparing options, explaining consequences, and negotiating a response. Select evidence for each outcome.
Examine model assumptions.
Climate Interactive documents baseline assumptions (Chikofsky, 2023). Suggested application: ask learners to change an assumption and explain how the result affects their conclusion.
Separate enthusiasm and competence.
Chaudhry et al. (2026) report survey improvements after role-play. Suggested application: assess a decision brief with evidence, trade-offs, and a recommendation separately from confidence.
What the evidence can tell us
Guidance is not an effectiveness trial. Pre/post surveys alone do not establish durable competence; older model documentation should be checked against the current tool.
Sources to explore
- Chaudhry, A., Ghimire, S., & Rodriguez-Tejedo, I. (2026). Experiential learning for climate education: A study of the En-ROADS climate action simulation. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education. Advance online publication.https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSHE-07-2025-0737
- Chikofsky, J. (2023, August 14). What are some of the key assumptions underlying the En-ROADS Baseline scenario? Climate Interactive.https://support.climateinteractive.org/support/solutions/articles/47001158762-what-are-some-of-the-key-assumptions-underlying-the-en-roads-baseline-scenario-
- Fischer, D., King, J., & Redman, A. (2026). Assessing learning in education for sustainable development. UNESCO.https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/assessing-learning-education-sustainable-development
Choose the video for the language learner
An engaging clip may still be the wrong resource for a language goal.Read the brief
An engaging clip may still be the wrong resource for a language goal.
A 2026 synthesis associated educational audiovisual input with larger language-learning gains than entertainment input (Sutton & Webb, 2026). Selection should start with the learner’s needs and intended performance.
Match a language goal.
Suggested application: identify target vocabulary, expressions, or listening decisions before choosing the clip. Assess their use in a relevant exchange.
Check prior knowledge.
Peters and Webb (2018) identified influences on incidental vocabulary learning. Suggested application: preview essential terms and support language that could block the task.
Design a response.
Broader video research supports active learning (Zhang et al., 2025). Suggested application: reconstruct a dialogue or use an expression in a new situation without adding distracting interactions.
What the evidence can tell us
Within-group gains do not isolate an advantage over alternative instruction. The 2018 study involved Dutch-speaking English learners; broader video evidence is mainly adult and STEM research.
Sources to explore
- Peters, E., & Webb, S. (2018). Incidental vocabulary acquisition through viewing L2 television and factors that affect learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40(3), 551–577.https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263117000407
- Sutton, D., & Webb, S. (2026). The effects of audiovisual input on second language learning: A meta-analysis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 48(2), 571–595.https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263126101612
- Zhang, Y., Li, R., Pi, Z., & Yang, J. (2025). Active learning strategies in video learning: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 48, Article 100708.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2025.100708
An alert is not an intervention
A dashboard identifies a pattern. Someone still needs to design what happens next.Read the brief
A dashboard identifies a pattern. Someone still needs to design what happens next.
Studies distinguish changes in initial engagement from improvements in learning (Russell et al., 2026). Proactive advising research also shows why the response attached to an alert matters (Rust & Motz, 2026).
Connect signals to support.
Suggested application: assign a responder, useful next step, and follow-up point. An alert should open a support pathway rather than simply populate a report.
Measure behavior and learning separately.
Personalized messages did not improve all measured outcomes (Russell et al., 2026). Suggested application: track starting, continuing, and demonstrating capability separately.
Keep people responsible for interpretation.
Jisc (2026) recommends oversight and opportunities to correct data. Suggested application: ask about context before treating low activity as low motivation.
What the evidence can tell us
The studies test different interventions and populations. Rust and Motz used one institution’s 2020 data; Jisc provides governance guidance rather than experimental learning evidence.
Sources to explore
- Jisc. (2026, October 23). The ethical application of AI in learning analytics.https://www.jisc.ac.uk/news/all/the-ethical-application-of-ai-in-learning-analytics
- Russell, J.-E., Smith, A.-M., George, S., & Brummett, A. (2026). Impact of learning analytics-based personalized feedback: An experimental study on student behavior in a large introductory STEM course. Educational Technology Research and Development. Advance online publication.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-026-10728-6
- Rust, M. M., & Motz, B. A. (2026). Incorporating an LMS learning analytic into proactive advising: Validity and use in a randomized experiment. The Internet and Higher Education, 68, Article 101057.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2025.101057
The first attempt can prepare the lesson
An unsuccessful attempt can become instructional material when the lesson follows it.Read the brief
An unsuccessful attempt can become instructional material when the lesson follows it.
A foundational meta-analysis found benefits from problem solving followed by instruction under particular conditions (Sinha & Kapur, 2021). Newer experiments examine what learners should compare after that initial work.
Give the attempt a purpose.
Suggested application: use a bounded, low-stakes problem that reveals approaches and gaps. Explain that learners are preparing for instruction rather than demonstrating finished mastery.
Consider observing attempts.
Braas et al. (2025) examined solution diversity. Suggested application: compare contrasting attempts that expose different features of the concept.
Design the explanation.
Safadi and Diab (2026) compared follow-up circuit activities. Suggested application: pilot comparison tasks before adding more prompts, and check whether support helps reasoning.
What the evidence can tell us
The evidence does not justify making every lesson harder. Results differ by age and domain, and specific circuit-learning findings are not a general rule against scaffolding.
Sources to explore
- Braas, T. C., Hartmann, C., Hoogerheide, V., Rummel, N., & van Gog, T. (2025). When is observing failure productive? Investigating the role of solution diversity in vicarious failure. Instructional Science, 53, 1715–1738.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-025-09706-x
- Safadi, R., & Diab, A. (2026). Making the productive failure in PS-I more productive: The case of scaffolding the instruction phase. Instructional Science, 54, Article 49.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-026-09802-6
- Sinha, T., & Kapur, M. (2021). When problem solving followed by instruction works: Evidence for productive failure. Review of Educational Research, 91(5), 761–798.https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543211019105
A course page must survive enlargement
Readable enlargement belongs in the release checklist.Read the brief
Readable enlargement belongs in the release checklist.
W3C’s reflow guidance addresses the effort of scrolling across every line when content is enlarged (W3C, n.d.). Instructional designers need to test whether learners can still complete the task.
Test a narrow view.
Suggested application: check directions, examples, feedback, and controls at a narrow width. Preserve essential content rather than hiding it to make the layout fit.
Let layout change shape.
Minnesota IT Services recommends reflow, wrapping, and adaptable labels. Suggested application: stack instructional panels in a sensible reading order.
Test interaction.
Microsoft recommends checking clipping, overlap, resizing, and assistive technologies. Suggested application: complete the full learner task while enlarged, including response and feedback.
What the evidence can tell us
These are established development resources. Reflow testing alone does not establish WCAG conformance; genuinely two-dimensional content requires context-sensitive treatment.
Sources to explore
- Microsoft. (n.d.). Test screen magnifiers. Microsoft Learn.https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/training/modules/develop-accessible-resize-reflow/8-test-screen-magnifiers
- Minnesota IT Services. (n.d.). WCAG 2.1 & development.https://mn.gov/mnit/about-mnit/accessibility/training/wcag2.1/development.jsp
- World Wide Web Consortium. (n.d.). Understanding Success Criterion 1.4.10: Reflow. Web Accessibility Initiative.https://www.w3.org/WAI/WCAG21/Understanding/reflow
Peer review is a skill, not a button
Assigning reviewers does not prepare them to give useful feedback.Read the brief
Assigning reviewers does not prepare them to give useful feedback.
A 2026 synthesis found a small positive relationship between feedback quality and later outcomes (Alemdag et al., 2026). For instructional designers, giving feedback is a learning activity worth preparing and assessing.
Prepare reviewers.
Özyer (2025) found stronger effects in studies including reviewer training. Suggested application: review a short sample, compare with a model, and revise a comment before peer work.
Support the reasoning.
Hornstein et al. (2025) found benefits from instructional support. Suggested application: ask reviewers to identify evidence, explain its effect, and suggest a useful next step.
Assess quality.
Suggested application: evaluate a representative comment for accuracy, usefulness, and reasoning. Ask what reviewing revealed about the learner’s own work.
What the evidence can tell us
The 2026 associations are correlational. Reviews can share underlying studies, and limited feedback-reception evidence prevents firm conclusions about its effectiveness.
Sources to explore
- Alemdag, E., Lipnevich, A., Bardach, L., & Lindner, M. A. (2026). Peer feedback quality matters for post-feedback outcomes: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 53, Article 100848.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2026.100848
- Hornstein, J., Keller, M. V., Greisel, M., Dresel, M., & Kollar, I. (2025). Enhancing the peer-feedback process through instructional support: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 37, Article 42.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-025-10017-3
- Özyer, K. K. (2025). The impact of online peer assessment on academic performance in higher education: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Educators Online, 22(3).https://doi.org/10.9743/JEO.2025.22.3.11
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Learning with purpose.
I’m Sonja L. Howell, Ph.D.—an instructional designer, author, and educator. I curate research and resources into brief reads that connect evidence with everyday learning design decisions.
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